Structure and Chemical Composition of Silk

Structure and Chemical Composition of Silk Silk: A Natural Polymer By: David Church â€Å"The Silk Road,† a trading route that can be traced back to over 3600 years ago, but still is a household recognized name. Standing the test of time proves that this product was extremely important in shaping history. According to Chinese historians, silk began with the prince of China, Hoang-ti, and his wife, Si-ling-chi. The prince wanted his wife to contribute something important to their people. He assigned her the task of finding a use for the thread that came from silk worms. Si-ling-chi was able to develop a method to feed the worms, extract and reel the thread, as well as create clothing from the silk. The Chinese were able to keep not only the method of producing silk but also the source (the silk worm) a secret until about the sixth century. The nobility of the world was forced to pay as much as its weight in gold for silk until about 555 A.D. This is when two Nestorian monks were able to bring a few silk worm eggs to Constantinople, which began the spread of pr oduction through Europe and other parts of Asia.6 Silk can come from many different insects, including caterpillars, spiders, and worms. The most economically viable silk is produced from mulberry silkworms because they can be raised in captivity and their silk can be mass produced. The larva is born from an egg and must be fed mulberry leaves for up to one month before it is ready to create a cocoon of silk. Once it creates this cocoon, workers kill the larva inside using hot water or steam, and then proceed with the rest of the manufacturing process.5 The structure of this silk is composed of amino acids linked together in a long chain. Three main amino acids comprise 83.4% of the total polymer structure with trace amounts of many other amino acids. A total of up to 2592 different amino acids can be found in a polymer chain of silk. The three frequent amino acids include glycine, alanine, and tyrosine, with ratios in the polymer chain of about 1/2, 1/4, and 1/16 respectively. This leaves a ratio of about 3/16 of all other trace amino acids. If we denote glycine as G, alanine as A, tyrosine as T, and all the other amino acids as X, an outline structure of the polymer can be created to follow a pattern similar to: [G-A-G-T-G-A-G-X-G-A-G-X-G-A-G-X] n.2 Even though the chemical structure of this polymer chain seems like it could be very complex, the actual structure of the chain is relatively simple. The two most frequent amino acids present (glycine and alanine) in the polymer make up about 75% of the polymer chain and fortunately have two of the simplest individual structures of all amino acids. Glycine’s and alanine’s chemical structures are shown in Figures 1 and 2 respectively.2 Figure 1: Glycine Chemical Structure Figure 2: Alanine Chemical Structure The third most frequent amino acid present, tyrosine, is a little larger and more complex because it contains a benzene ring. Its chemical structure is shown in Figure 3.2 Figure 3: Tyrosine Chemical Structure The similarities in the chemical structure of these amino acids should be noted. As a generalization, all amino acids can be represented with an amino group, a hydrogen atom, a carboxylic acid group, and a side â€Å"R† group all attached to the alpha carbon as shown in Figure 4.2 Figure 4: Generalized Amino Acid Chemical Structure The method of synthesis that is used is step growth condensation polymerization. To perform this reaction, a hydrogen atom from the amino group of one amino acid reacts with the hydroxide molecule from the carboxylic acid group of another amino acid to form water. This allows for the nitrogen atom to bond directly to the carbon atom and start a chain. One step in the polymerization process between glycine and alanine is shown in Figure 5.1 Figure 5: Polymerization Step This process propagates in a chain of amino acids with the pattern previously shown in Figure 1. Denoting â€Å"R† for the side chain in tyrosine and â€Å"R1† for all the side chains in the numerous trace amino acids, a simplified polymer chain diagram would look something like what is shown in Figure 6.1 Figure 6: Simplified Polymer Chain2 As the name suggests, â€Å"The Silk Road† was a route taken in order to trade silk between communities, however, silk was not the only product being transported on this route. Silk is arguably known as the most significant product being transported at the time, but because of the existence of the Silk Road, it made it much easier to trade other commodities, such as gold, precious metals and stones, ivory, exotic animals, and religion. The route provided a means for Buddhist missions to travel from India to influence China. The starting point of the Silk Road and capital of China was Changan. During the heyday of the Silk Road, about 740 A.D., Changan grew into one of the largest cities of the time with a population of about two million people. As the Silk Road developed and the precious items became more widely known, it in turn became more dangerous to travel. Bandits took advantage of the long, desert road by attacking and looting caravans. To combat this, sections of the G reat Wall of China were constructed to defend the caravans.9 The simple pleasures that silk provided like comfort and social hierarchy caused a chain reaction that in turn led to the globalization of trade, religion, economy, and mass construction. Today, silk has taken on a new importance to society with the many technologically advanced uses that will be discussed later. Both the advantages and disadvantages of silk can mainly be contributed to the inherent biological nature of its formation. The advantages of silk come from comparing it with other natural threads and with artificially created threads. The mulberry silk worm produces large amounts of silk in a convenient cocoon shape that is easily industrialized unlike other natural threads. The natural process of protein organization with such chemical control has not been able to be replicated artificially in a laboratory. The first disadvantages of silk are bound by the limitations of nature. The only insect that is currently capable of mass producing silk is the mulberry silkworm. Other insects that produce silk such as spiders are carnivorous and independent in nature, and cannot produce mass quantities silk. Therefore, creating a farm of spiders that can produce enough silk becomes very difficult. The mulberry silkworm only creates one type of thread whereas a spider can produce typically five types of thread that have different and desired properties.4 A few other disadvantages include photo-yellowing, wrinkling recovery, and rub-resistance. Photo-yellowing is a phenomenon where the silk turns a yellowish tint after prolonged exposure to light. Silk cloth has poor wrinkling recovery meaning after it is creased; it is difficult to get it smooth again. The rub-resistance or abrasion-resistance of silk cloth is also poor, which is the ability to resist surface wear from flat rubbing on another material.5 The obvious example of a use for silk is cloth which also takes up the greatest portion of silk consumption. There are many other uses of silk specifically in the medical field that have arisen recently due to advances in technology. The fibers of silk have been used for sutures of wounds, because it does not trigger a response from the human immune system. For the same reason, it has been used as replacement ligaments, tendons, bones, and cartilage.3 After further research and development, a potential use is an artificial cornea made from a silk film that is lasered to become permeable. Another potential use currently under research is very thin, degradable silk films with electrode arrays printed on them. These films could form to the contours of the brain and potentially treat epilepsy and other conditions with less scarring than traditional procedures. New innovative uses for silk are surfacing and being researched regularly.4 Silk is a rapidly renewable resource that is both reusable and biodegradable. It has much less negative impact when compared to other fabrics if it is produced safely and organically. There is not much processing involved in the creation of silk that normally would cause unnecessary environmental impact. The mulberry plantations provide prevention to soil erosion from wind and water, as well as improving air quality by naturally filtering the air. Some silk has been advertised as being a â€Å"green† product when produced with the appropriate caution, but it also has negative environmental impacts associated with its production. 7 In non-organic production, pesticides and fertilizers are used in the growth of the mulberry trees that pollute the air when sprayed and the ground water when washed away by precipitation. Chemicals are used in the â€Å"degumming† process that are eventually wash off creating wastewater that in certain cases may or may not be reclaimed at a w ater treatment plant. In most areas silk is produced where populations are large and land is sparse, such as China, Japan, Italy, and India. The mulberry plantations take up a significant amount of land. 8 These are some of the few locations that have been able to successfully grow mulberry plantations; subsequently a great deal of transportation is required to deliver the silk to its consumers leading to pollution. As with any industrialized production, there are always environmental impacts both positive and negative that arise.7 References Ahluwalia, V.K., and Anuradha Mishra. Polymer Science. New Delhi: Ane Books Pvt. Ltd., 2008. Print. Bergmann, Max, and Carl Niemann. On the Strucure of Silk Fibroin. Journal of Biological  Chemistry 122.2 (1938): 577-596. The Journal of Biological Chemistry. Web. 25 Sept.  2014. Boado, Christine. Hand Designed Silk Embroidery Art with Over 2,500 Years of History.  Importance of Silk. Art of Silk, 12 Sept. 2012. Web. 25 Sept. 2014.  http://www.artofsilk.com/blogs/news/6565365-importance-of-silk#.VCpd-GePLIV>. Fountain, Henry. The Reinvention of Silk. The New York Times 7 Mar. 2011, sec. Science: n. pag. The New York Times. Web. 25 Sept. 2014. Harding, John G., Lin M. Romer, and Thomas R. Scheibel. Polymeric Materials Based on Silk Proteins. Polymer 49.20 (2008): 4309-4327. Science Direct. Web. 25 Sept. 2014. Kitching, J. Howard. The Cultivation of a Silk Worm. The Decorator and Furnisher 5.2 (1884): 56. JSTOR. Web. 25 Sept. 2014. Muthu, Subramanian Senthilkannan. Assessing the Environtmental Impact of Textiles and the  Clothing Supply Chain. Wiltham MA: Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2014. Print. Soulivanh, Somphong. Environmental Impacts of Trade Liberalization in the Silk Handicrafts Sector of the Lao PDR. International Institute for Sustainable Development. International Institute for Sustainable Development, 1 Dec. 2007. Web. 25 Sept. 2014. Wild, Oliver. The Silk Road. The Silk Road. Earth System Science University of California, 1992. Web. 25 Sept. 2014. http://www.ess.uci.edu/~oliver/silk.html>.

George Orwells Nineteen Eighty-Four 1984 :: essays research papers

Nineteen Eighty Four Short Essay   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In Canada, we have the freedom to do almost anything. In the novel Nineteen Eighty Four, there is no freedom. Although there are no laws in Oceania, there are consequences to doing thoughtcrime. The consequences are used not for punishment but for the limitation of people who may perform a crime in the future. There are many differences in our society today and the society that of Nineteen Eighty Four. In our society today, we encourage thinking. Even in schools, children are taught to express themselves in any way possible. Story writing, acting, or even art, there are a variety of ways to achieve that while in Oceania, children are taught to spy on their parents to see if they are having thoughtcrimes. Thoughtcrime is a word in Newspeak that controls any individual thought. One cannot think on his or her own. He or she can only think what the government tells or allows him or her to think. If they are ever caught with thoughtcrime, he or she would be vapourized. Freedom of speech is limited due to the fact that thought can lead to the destruction of the government. Speech is also restricted due the Newspeak. Newspeak limits the words one can use to eliminate thoughtcrime. Without words, one cannot fully express themselves.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The people of Oceania do not have the freedom of expression like we do. Without thought, there is no expressions of any kind, which makes him or her a goodthinker. A goodthinker is one that knows naturally, without thought, how to behave or act according to the government. In society today, there is freedom of expression everywhere. In magazines, on televisions, on people themselves and even communication. People express themselves through their clothing, while in the book, everyone wears the same thing. There is no freedom of expression whatsoever. In both magazines and television, people express their opinion all the time with no fear of being vapourized or the fear of the consequences the community of Oceania has to face. Today, people will protest against the government for what they believe in. For example, teachers protested Bill 160 in the streets against the government. There would never be public protests against the government in Oceania.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  History is important for one to know of what has happened in the past and learn from it. We are able to learn history through books, videos and even from people.

Michael Jordan & Basketball

When someone says the name Michael Jordan, the first thing that comes to mind is basketball, The Chicago Bulls and Nike shoes. Through the years, Michael Jordan has proved time and time again that he is the greatest basketball player ever, and by performing in this rapidly expanding sporting field, he has gained tremendous popularity throughout the world. People of all ages and from all nationalities have gathered to watch him play. A journalist states ‘even your Aunt Matilda might not know nothing about basketball, liked watching him play† (Jonathon 1999:58). Jordan has become more than just an entertainer. He is a hero and a role model amongst basketball spectators. Johnson claims that ‘he is the most famous American in the world† (ibid.). Perhaps he was born to be the best. Even though he is a star, Michael†s childhood had been very distressing. In fact, Michael Jordan was nearly miscarried by his mother. His nose bled from birth till he was five, he nearly suffocated when he fell behind the bed as a baby and nearly killed himself when an electrocution threw him three feet. In Jordan†s own words, he exclaims I mean my girlfriend got swept in a flood and drowned when we were in college. Another time, I was swimming with a friend when both of us got pulled into the ocean by a strong undertow. I was able to get free and make it back to land. He never made it back (Jordan 1998:96). Additionally, after going through so many traumatic and distressing times, not many people would have been able to live their dreams. But Jordan performed the task of living his dream exceptionally well. Despite a somewhat desperate childhood, Michael Jordan enjoyed his time at school. He did his first years of schooling at D.C. Virgo Junior High School and later graduated to Lanley High School where he began practicing intensively on his basketball skills. He was accepted in the University of North Carolina through a basketball scholarship. At the university, Michael took on the challenge of driving his teammates to a level of performance that they might never have achieved on their own. He scored the winning basket in the National Collegiate Athletic Association championship game in 1982. A sportswriter describes ‘the relentlessness with which Michael Jordan prodded and cajoled the other players in leading them to championship season after championship season† (Lazenby 1996:37). The glorious moments achieved by Michael Jordan were soon vaporised by a permanent shadow. In 1993, an agonising incident shattered Jordan†s excitement after winning his third championship. Moments after the game, Michael†s father, James Jordan, was brutally murdered by two ruthless teenagers. This was a severe tragedy in Michael†s life; his father was gone. For this reason, Michael decided to retire from Basketball and play Baseball in memory of his father. This was because James Jordan adored Baseball (Jordan 1998:112). He signed a minor league contract with the Chicago White Sox, but was unsuccessful (Encarta 1999). Hence Jordan returned to his favorable professional sport of basketball. Allison exclaims ‘at a press conference, Michael only said two words, I†m back!† (Samuels 1999). The ball started to roll again. But the anxiety of the spectators only lasted till the end of 1997. By far, the Chicago Bulls had been hit the hardest with the news of Jordan†s retirement. The breakup arose when the management refused to pay Phil Jackson, coach of the Chicago Bulls, what he deserved after bringing six NBA championships to the Bulls. When Jackson abandoned the team, Jordan refused to play for a new coach. After Jordan officially announced his retirement, basketball great, Scottie Pippen was traded to the Houston Rockets. Only four players of the previous year†s team still remained on the Chicago Bulls. Stein considers ‘many have made the prediction that the bulls will lose mare games in this shortened season than they did all last year† (Stein 1999). The die-hard Chicago Bulls fans will always hold a special place in their heart for Michael Jordan. They will tell their sons and daughters about him, they will get out the old VHS tapes of games that they have recorded and they will pass along basketball cards that will be worth hundreds of dollars. Those of us who have seen him play will always remember him and what he has done for the game of basketball. For those who haven†t will have to settle for the endless highlight reels and Nike commercials to keep his memory alive.

The Healing Power of Music Essay - 1350 Words

In definition, music therapy is, â€Å"the clinical and evidence-based use of music interventions to accomplish individualized goals† (American Music Therapy). Music has been an element of the human psyche since early ancestors fell asleep to the rhythmic sounds of waves lapping against the shore and awoke to singing birds at daybreak. Theories on music therapy trace back to ancient Egypt where it was called the â€Å"physic of soul† in other words, a healing power (Podolsky). It gained resurgence during World Wars I and II, when volunteers played instruments and sang for wounded soldiers in hospitals. Music is integral to our culture and emotional health. Barbara Crowe, president of National Association for Music Therapy stated, Music therapy can†¦show more content†¦It seems only obvious since people smile, tap their feet or dance to the rhythm and timing of a song. For instance, people might hear a song on the radio and it immediately brings back memories or moods. Music in a minor key is usually thought of as sad-sounding as opposed to that written in a major key. â€Å"The cerebellum and amygdala work together to help differentiate between major and minor chords† (Science News).(explain) Responses to music therapy vary from person to person, but so does the response to many medicines. Applications and methods remain scattered and uncoordinated inhibiting potential for refining its use. Proper use of music therapy could decrease the dependency on prescription medicines and help the whole patient. On that note, music therapy should be funded to develop our knowledge of its effectiveness. Music therapy is often used with brain damaged patients with emotional issues such as anxiety in relationships, and the inability to handle difficult situations with peers and/or authority figures. Hearing music releases endorphins that trigger pleasant feelings in the frontal lobes of our brains that gives the satisfaction of emotions like love , happiness, and sadness. It affects the heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and muscle tension. Music with free style melodies like jazz is more relaxing than heavy metal rock’s screaming lyrics and driving beats. Music therapy helps patients express emotions when words cannot. (place such asShow MoreRelatedThe Healing Power Of Music1612 Words   |  7 PagesThe Healing Power of Music The Alzheimer’s Foundation of America, defines Alzheimer’s as being the most common form of dementia, occurring in 60% to 80% of people suffering from symptoms of dementia (Clair Tomaino, 2016). The foundation also states that it is an irreversible disease that progresses over time, destroying cognitive functions such as: memory, learning, and language skills. 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