Skeletal, Muscular & Articular Systems

Skeletal, Articular and Muscular Systems Human pulp & adenosine monophosphate Physiology Assignment 6 A short study of the human bodies raddled, muscular and joint types. content toil 12 task 23 chore 3a8 tax 3b0 caper 4a10 Task 5a10 Task 6a11 Task 6b14 References16 Pictures/ dates16 Task 1 Task 1A A patient with a bone mineral density T-score of -2. 7 would be suffering from osteoporosis. Normal BMD, T-score -1 SD> Osteopenia, T-score between -1 & angstrom unit -2. 5 SD>< Osteoporosis, T-score -2. SD< Severe Osteoporosis, T-score -2. 5 SD< with associated fractures. 1 Task 1B Key internal secretions associated with bone formation in men/women ar PTH (parathyroid hormone) produced by the parathyroid glands, and Calcitonin produced by C- booths. In children, HGH is important and is around bear upond in epiphyseal abode activity in adolescents the stir hormones testosterone and oestrogen play an important role in bone developing, growth hormone (HGH) is m odulated by the activity of the thyroid hormones, ensuring that the soma has becoming proportions as it is growing.Later in adolescence, the sex hormones testosterone and oestrogen induce epiphyseal plate closure in the long mug up an excess of growth hormone during this development phase base lead to gigantism, while a insufficiency of HGH and/or the thyroid hormones would produce dwarfism. Low blood levels of ionic atomic number 20 forget stimulate the release of PTH in turn stimulating osteoclasts to reabsorb bone and frankincense releasing more atomic number 20 to the blood. Osteoclasts will talltail it down both old and new bone matrices, osteoid escapes assimilation asc guyable to its lack of atomic number 20 salts.Read Renal System Physiology PhysioexRising levels of blood calcium will end the stimulus of PTH, declining levels of PTH will reverse these force turn ups causing the level of blood Ca2+ to fall, calcitonin only has a negligible effect on calcium hom eostasis in humans. (Marieb & axerophtholere Hoehn, 2010, pp. 185-86) Task 1C The major supplements employ to attend to sufferers of osteoporosis argon calcium and vitamin D, aim for at least 700mg of calcium from food/drink intake when using calcium and vitamin D to help osteoporosis then a formulation prescribed by a convolute should be sought.Most over the counter calcium/vitamin D supplements do non contain the correct amount and ratio of calcium/vitamin D, to help cover up osteoporosis a formulation containing 1. 2g of calcium and 800iu of vitamin D2 should be taken. (NHS , 2011) Other good dietetical sources of calcium be small fish (with bones sardines/pilchards), low-fat dairy products and apparition green leafy vegetables (broccoli/cabbage/okra) as atomic number 18 tofu (soya) and nuts. (NHS, 2011) satisfactory dietary sources of vitamin D include all oily fish, eggs alternate spreads and liver.It is alike important to get the appropriate amount of sunlight, as the UVB rays traverse skin where they ar converted into pre-vitamin D3 by cutaneous 7-dehydrocholesterol. Aim for at least 5-30 minutes per day of UVB during the hours of 10am to 3pm, to the legs face plump for and arms for enough vitamin D production cloud cover and darker skin tones will stifle the available UVB. (USA. Gov, 2011) Task 1D High impact sports, such as data track metric weight whole training walking aerobiotic exercise and squash ar all good for increasing BMD, low impact sports such as swimming and cycling father no positive effect on BMD.Exercise regimes should be undertaken at least twice per week, preferably one-third time p/w of 30 minutes or more, and of course should be supervised by a qualified individual. The level of intensity should be low at the start of the regimen, increasing the number of repetitions and/or weight over time. Any BMD gains achieved would be lost if the exercise regime is send awayped, and thus regular face-to-face con tact is important to help foster a positive mental attitude. (Todd & Robinson, 2003)Individuals suffering from osteoporosis should be cargonful when task vigorous high impact exercise, due to the weakness of the skeletal ashes most importantly, an active lifestyle coupled with regular exercise should be followed to help combat osteoporosis in advancing historic period. Task 2 Task 2A Axial Skeleton Eighty bones separated to form three regions (skull, vertebral column & musculus pectoralis cage) make up the construction of the axile skeleton. The parts of the axial skeleton form the longitudinal bloc of the system, protect the brain/spinal cord and support the neck/ capitulum/trunk.The skull formed of the cranial and facial bones is an exceptionally complex osseous structure the skull serves as a compound for the frail brain, and has link positions for the accomplishment/neck musculuss. The vertebral column comprises of 26 asymmetrical bones given up to form a c urved flexible structure that supports the trunk extending from the skull to the hip joint the vertebral column transmits weight to the swallow limbs. Providing attachment points for the sinews of the neck/back and for the ribs, it also acts as protection for the spinal column.The thorax, more commonly cognize as the chest consists of thoracic vertebrae ribs sternum and costal cartilages that secure the ribs onto the sternum. Forming a protective cage around vital organs, the thorax has a full-length cone shape that is quite broad the thorax also supports the get up girdles upper limbs and provides the energys of the back/neck/shoulders and chest with connection points. (Marieb & Hoehn, 2010, pp. 199,216) Task 2A Appendicular Skeleton The appendicular skeleton is made up of the limbs and their girdles, the appendicular skeleton is appended to the axial skeleton hence the name appendicular.The upper limbs attached via a yoke like girdle (pectoral) to the trunk of the ash es and the glare limbs secured by the pelvic girdle. The bones of the upper/ light limbs have unlike functionalities and mobility, but still have the same essential plane that the limbs are constituted of three key divisions linked via alterable joints. The appendicular skeletal structure allows us stool such as taking a step, picking up a cup or kicking a ball. The pectoral girdle is comprised of an anterior collarbone and a hind end scapula the shoulders formed from the associated brawns and the paired pectoral girdles.Attaching the upper limbs to the axial skeleton, the pectoral girdles also exemplify points of attachment for brawninesss that are responsible for moving the upper limbs mobility is high as these girdles are real light. The upper limbs form from 30 bones, from distributively one bone described locally as a bone of the hand, arm or forearm the arm is con slopered in an anatomical sense to be the upper limb between the shoulder and elbow. The lower limbs at tach to the axial skeleton via the pelvic girdle and diffuse the weight of the upper body to the lower limbs, and provide support for the pelvic visceral organs.Some of the strongest ligaments in the body attach the pelvic girdle to the axial skeleton, the pelvic girdle is very stable but lacks the mobility of the pectoral girdle carrying the weight of the body the lower limbs are subject to astonishing forces. Compared to the bones of the upper limbs, the bones of the lower limbs are much thicker and stronger. (Marieb & Hoehn, 2010, pp. 223,233,237) Task 2b Axial/Appendicular Attachments The thoracic cage is nicely attached to the pectoral girdle, not like the pelvic girdle that is affixed to the axial skeleton by some marvellous strong ligaments, some of the strongest in the body.The sockets of the pelvic girdle are stocky and cuplike, the femur manoeuvre is secured firmly in place in these sockets, the pectoral girdle is far more moveable but the pelvic girdle is much mor e table. The shoulders are formed from the paired pectoral girdles and their associated muscles, a girdle usually refers to a belt like structure that encircles the body, til now in the case of the pectoral girdles this does not satisfy the said description. The average end of each clavicle is joined anteriorly to the sternum and the distal ends encounter the scapulae squint-eyedly.The scapulae do not perfect the girdle posteriorly, as their medial rims fail to join to each other or to the axial skeleton, until now the scapulae attach to the thorax and the vertebral column via muscles that garb their exteriors. The upper limbs are attached to the axial skeleton via the pectoral girdles and also provide connection points for the upper limb muscles. The girdles are light and this allows a freedom of movement that is not accomplished elsewhere in the body, as only the clavicle fastens to the axial skeleton, this allows the scapulae to move easily a marking the thorax.The hip joint macrocosm a ball and socket joint has a good range of motion however, the shoulder has a wider range of motion. The joints strong ligaments limit movements, but do occur in all planes. Formed from the articulation of the femurs spherical head and the greatly cupped acetabulum of the hipbone is the hip joint. A circular oral cavity of fibrocartilage (Acetabulor labrum) enhances the depth of the acetabulum the diameter of the labrum is smaller than the head of the femur qualification for a snug fit of these articulary surfaces dislocations of the hip are a rare incident.Extending from the brim of the acetabulum up to the stem of the femur, the sour articular casing wholly surrounds the joint there are several chesty ligaments that reinforce the hip joint capsule. These ligaments include the iliofemoral ligament, an anteriorly placed v-shaped ligament, and the pubofemoral, which is a triangular condensing of the lesser fragment of the capsule, and the ischiofemoral ligament that i s a coiling posterior ligament. On either side of the pelvic girdle, the iliolumbar ligament connects the pelvis and vertebral columns. (Marieb & Hoehn, 2010, pp. 225-226,233,267) Ligaments of the pelvic girdle Iliolumbar ligament ? Anterior Sacroiliac ligament ? Sacrospinus ligament ? Sacrotuberous ligament ? Pubofemoral ligament ? Iliofemoral ligament ? Ischiofemoral ligament ? Sacroiliac ligament ? Ischiofemoral ligament ? Ligamentum teres Ligaments of the thoracic girdle ? capsular ligament ? Coracoclavicular ligament ? Costoclavicular ligament ? Coracohumeral ligament ? Glenohumeral ligament Task 2c Lordosis, Kyphosis, Scoliosis Cervical and lumbar secondary curvatures being convex anteriorly, are associated with a Childs development, this is a result of reshaping of the intervertebral discs and not from modification of the vertebrae.The cervical curvature being present at birth does not take distinct until 3 months when the baby will start to raise its head, whereas the l umbar curvature will develop when the baby begins to walk. During the early childhood years the vertebral problems of scoliosis or lordosis may appear as speedy growth of the long bones stretches muscles, lordosis is most often present during preschool years but is more often than not remedied when the abdominal muscle strengthen. This firming up tilts forward the pelvis and the thorax widens, thus developing the multitude posture in adolescence.At the onset of old-age many parts of the skeleton are affected, principally the spine the discs thin and loose elasticity and hydration resulting in a probable rise in disc herniation, at 55 years old its not uncommon to have a expiration of up to several centimetres in stature. Osteoporosis can produce further trim back of the spine as can kyphosis, in the elderly this is referred to as a dowagers hump, with age the thorax develops rigidity due to ossification of the costal cartilage, thus resulting in shallow breathing from a loss of r ib cage elasticity.Abnormal spine curvatures, of which some are congenital and some resulting from muscle weakness, disease and bad posture. In the thoracic region of the spine, an abnormal lateral curvature is referred to as scoliosis (twisted disease) most often presenting during adolescence and more common in girls. Scoliosis can also be a result of muscle paralysis, nonequivalent lower limbs (length) or severe abnormal vertebra structure, non-functioning muscles on one side of the spine will cause the muscles of the opposite side to exert an unopposed pull forcing the spine into a misaligned position.Body braces and/or surgery are apply to treat scoliosis during childhood and thus preventing a permanent deformity. Scoliosis can also cause breathing difficulties, due to the nature of the disease a compressed lung in not unusual. Kyphosis, often referred to as hunchback, is a thoracic curvature that is dorsally exaggerated very common due to osteoporosis in elderly people and c an also reflect rickets, osteomalacia or terbium of the spine.An accentuated curvature of the lumbar vertebrae is called Lordosis (swayback), this too can be caused by spinal tuberculosis or osteomalacia. Lordosis can also be caused in a temporary form by carrying a heavy frontal load, a pregnant woman being one example. These individuals will usually pushback their shoulders in lay out to preserve their centre of gravity, this of course emphasises the lumbar arch. (Marieb & Hoehn, 2010, pp. 217,243-244) Task 3a Structural Class Structural Types Type of Mobility Characteristics Fibrous3 Articulating bones joined by Sutures (Short Fibres) Child/Limited fibrous connective tissue. heavy(p)/Synarthrosis Syndesmosis (Longer Fibres) Amphiarthrosis/Immobile Gomphosis (Periodontal Ligament) Immobile Cartilaginous4 Synchondrosis (Hyaline gristle) Immobile Articulating bones joined by fibrocartilage or hyaline cartilage. Symphysis (Fibrocartilage) Slig ht Movement Synovial5 Joint capsule containing synovial monotonic Nonaxial membrane and synovial fluid. Hinge Uniaxial Pivot Atlantoaxial Condyloid biaxial Saddle Biaxial Ball & Socket Multiaxial Task 4a Characteristic Skeletal Cardiac fine-tune Attached to bones, facial muscle & skin. Walls of the heart. Single unit muscle in walls of hollow Location visceral organs (other than the heart) & multiunit muscle in intrinsic eye muscles, airways & large arteries. Single, very long, cylindrical, biramous chains of cells uni-Single, fusiform, uninucleate no Shape and appearance multinucleate cells with provable or binucleate striations. striations. striations. Epimysium, perimysium and endomysium. Endomysium attached to fibrous Endomysium. Connective Tissue components skeleton of heart. Voluntary via axon terminals of the Involuntary, intrinsic system Involuntary autonomic jumpiness hormones, Regulation of muscular contractio n somatic tense system. regulation also autonomic local chemicals stretch. nervous system controls hormones stretch. Slow to fast Slow very slow Speed of contraction No Yes Yes, in single unit muscle Rhythmic contraction Task 5a The classification of muscles falls into tetrad purposeful groups prime movers (agonists), antagonists, synergists and fixators.A prime mover or agonist is a muscle that has the chief responsibility of producing an explicit undertaking, for instance the biceps brachii is the fleshy muscle of the anterior arm that is the agonist of elbow flexion. An antagonist is a muscle that opposes the movements of agonists, an active agonist will result in a stretched or relaxed antagonist however, antagonists usually help to regulate movement of the agonist with a slight tightening to provide resistance to slow or stop movement as not to overshoot the mark. Agonists and antagonists are located opposite each other on the joint of which they act, a ntagonists can also survey as agonists and one example of this is the biceps brachii causing flexion of the forearm that is antagonised by the triceps brachii, the agonist for forearm extension.In supplement to the agonists and antagonists, the majority of muscle movements also involve synergists, synergists cut back alongside agonists to add extra force to movements or they work to reduce detrimental movements that can arise when the agonists move. (Marieb & Hoehn, 2010, p. 321) Task 5b human elbow Flexion Elbow Extension Pronation Supination Biceps brachii (Prime mover) Triceps brachii (Prime mover) Pronator teres Biceps brachii Brachialis (Prime mover) Anconeus Pronator quadratus (Prime mover) Supinator Pronator teres (Weak) Brachioradialis Task 5c Biceps brachii, Brachialis, Brachioradialis Task 5d Triceps brachii, Anconeus Task 5e Triceps brachii, Anconeus Task 5f Biceps brachii, Brachialis, Brachioradialis Task 6a Contraction refers to the activation of myosin cross bridge over, these bridges are the force generating sites when the tension is generated then contracting occurs through the cross bridges of the thin filaments, this force must surpass forces opposed to trim this then pulls filaments toward the m-line. When tension declines and the cross bridges inactivate, then contraction ends thus inducing relaxation in the muscle fibre.In the sliding filament feigning of contraction, thin filaments will fall away past thick filaments, and as a result, the actin6 and myosin7 strands will overlap to a larger gradation. Relaxed muscle fibres only have thick and thin fibres overlapping at the tips of the a-bonds, stimulation of the muscles fibres by the nervous system activates the myosin heads of the thick filaments to clasp onto the myosin fastening position on the actin of the thin filaments, and this process begins sliding. 8 In the course of contraction, these cross bridge connections are strained/ scummy legion(predicate) times, the att achments act like miniscule ratchets in order to create pressure and thus impel the thin filaments further toward the sarcomeres centre.This contraction event occurs concurrently throughout all sarcomeres in a cell shortening the muscle cell, it should be noted as the thin filaments slide towards the centre the z-disc to which they are attached to will be pulled toward the m-line. 9 In an boilers suit look at contraction, the muscle cell contracts as do the i-bonds and the hold between consecutive z-discs is reduced and the h-zones vanish, moving the contiguous a-bonds closer unitedly however, they do not change in length. (Marieb & Hoehn, 2010, p. 284) Task 6b moderate Phosphorylation The demand for adenosine triphosphate rises as we begin vigorous exercise, within a few contractions stored adenosine triphosphate is consumed, creatine phosphate is then used to egenerate adenosine triphosphate and this process is ongoing while the metabolic pathways acclimatize to the bodies demand for increase ATP. Pairing CP with ADP results in an almost instantaneous energy transfer, and a phosphate group to form ATP from the CP to ADP. Two to three times as much CP as ATP is stored in muscle cells, the CP-ADP feedback is improbably efficient and the volume of ATP in muscle cells does not change by much during the preliminary contraction phase. Maximum muscle berth can be provided for 14-16 seconds using stored CP and ATP, this is roughly long enough to shake up muscle for a 100-metre surge this reaction is reversible and CP resources are refilled during residual periods. 10 (Marieb & Hoehn, 2010, pp. 298-99) Anaerobic PathwayMore ATP is engendered by catabolism as stored ATP and CP are expended this catabolism of glucose is through the blood or from glycogen stored in muscle, glycolysis is the opening phase of glucose breakdown, glycolysis occurs in both the presence and absence of type O however, it does not use oxygen and is therefore anaerobiotic. Glucose is destroyed to form twain pyruvates during glycolysis, this releases enough energy to form some ATP (two ATP per glucose) usually, pyruvate manufacture would then enter the mitochondria and reacting with oxygen would provide even more ATP using the aerobic pathway. Vigorous muscle contraction at about 70% causes the bulging muscles to compress blood vessels, thus impairing blood come down and oxygen delivery.During these anaerobic conditions, the majority of pyruvate produced is transformed into lactic acid, this process is referred to anaerobic glycolysis. Anaerobic glycolysis yields around 5% of the ATP produced via the aerobic pathway from each glucose molecule, however it produces ATP about 2. 5 times faster than the aerobic pathway. 11 (Marieb & Hoehn, 2010, pp. 298-99) Aerobic Pathway Ninety-five percent of ATP used for muscle activity during moderate exercise and rest is produced via the aerobic cellular respiration pathway. Occurring in the mitochondria, aerobic res piration requires oxygen and encompasses a series of chemical reactions. During these reactions, the links of fuel molecules are destroyed liberating energy for ATP production.Glucose is broken down utterly to yield water, CO2 and great quantities of ATP, diffusing out of muscle tissue into the blood the lungs remove CO2. With the onset of exercise, glycogen stored in the muscles provides a large amount of the fuel, briefly, subsequently this circulating glucose, pyruvate and free fertile acids are the main source of fuel, roughly 30 minutes after this fatty acids will be the main energy source. Aerobic glycolysis provides a great deal of ATP (32), but is slow due to its numerous steps it also requires a constant supply of oxygen and nutrients to continue. 12 (Marieb & Hoehn, 2010, pp. 298-99) pic References Marieb, E. N. & Hoehn, K. , 2010. Bones and Skeletal Tissue. In A. Wagner, ed.Human frame & Physiology. eighth ed. San Francisco Pearson International Ltd. pp. 185-8 6. Marieb, E. N. & Hoehn, K. , 2010. Bones and Skeletal tissue. In A. Wagner, ed. Human Anatomy & Physiology. eighth ed. San Francisco Pearson International Ltd. pp. 199,216. Marieb, E. N. & Hoehn, K. , 2010. Bones and Skeletal Tissue. In A. Wagner, ed. Human Anatomy & Physiology. eighth ed. San Francisco Pearson International Ltd. pp. 223,233,237. Marieb, E. N. & Hoehn, K. , 2010. Covering, livelihood and Movement of the Body. In A. Wagner, ed. Human Anatomy and Physiology. 8th ed. San Francisco Pearson International Ltd. p. 284. Marieb, E. N. & Hoehn, K. , 2010.Covering, Support and Movement of the Body. In A. Wagner, ed. Human Anatomy & Physiology. 8th ed. San Francisco Pearson International Ltd. pp. 225-226,233,267. Marieb, E. N. & Hoehn, K. , 2010. Muscles and Muscle Tissue. In A. Wagner, ed. Human Anatomy and Physiology. 8th ed. San Francisco Pearson International Ltd. pp. 298-99. Marieb, E. N. & Hoehn, K. , 2010. The Muscular System. In A. Wagner, ed. Human Anatomy & Physiology. 8th ed. San Francisco Pearson International Ltd. p. 321. Marieb, E. N. & Hoehn, K. , 2010. The Vertebral Column. In A. Wagner, ed. Human Anatomy & Physiology. 8th ed. San Francisco Pearson International. pp. 217, 243-244. NHS , 2011.Osteoporosis Treatment. Online for sale at HYPERLINK http//www. nhs. uk/Conditions/Osteoporosis/Pages/Treatment. aspx http//www. nhs. uk/Conditions/Osteoporosis/Pages/Treatment. aspx Accessed 13 May 2011. NHS, 2011. Vitamins and Minerals Calcium. Online Available at HYPERLINK http//www. nhs. uk/Conditions/vitamins-minerals/Pages/Calcium. aspx http//www. nhs. uk/Conditions/vitamins-minerals/Pages/Calcium. aspx Accessed 13 May 2011. Todd, J. A. & Robinson, R. J. , 2003. Osteoporosis and Exercise. Postgrad Medical Journal, 4(79), pp. 320-23. USA. Gov, 2011. Vitamin D. Online Available at HYPERLINK http//ods. od. nih. ov/factsheets/VitaminD-HealthProfessional/ http//ods. od. nih. gov/factsheets/VitaminD-HealthPr ofessional/ Accessed 13 May 2011. Pictures/Figures http//samedical. blogspot. com/2010/07/contraction-of-skeletal-muscle. html (Figure 6. 1/6. 2/6. 3/6. 4/6. 5) http//i. acdn. us/image/A2868/286833/300_286833. jpg (Figure 7. 1) http//www. mindfiesta. com/images/article/Respiration_clip_image001. gif (Figure 7. 2) &8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212 1 http//www. gpnotebook. co. uk/simplepage. cfm? ID=-1979318262&linkID=32590&cook=no 2 Per day of both supplements. 3 sop up skeletal frame 3. 1, pictures A & B 4 See shape 3. 1, pictures C & D 5 See figure 3. 1, pictures E, I & F 6 See figure 6. 3 (Page 13) 7 See figure 6. 2 (Page 13) 8 See figure 6. 1 (Page 12) 9 See figure 6. 1 10 See figure 7. 1 11 See figure 7. 2 12 See figure 7. 2 &8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212 Monday, 22 April 2013 Figure 3. 1 Task 3b A. Skull (Fibrous) B. Ankle Tibiofibular/Distal (Synovial/Fibrous) C. First rib/Sternum (Cartilaginous) Hyaline Cartilage D. Vertebrae (Cartilaginous) Fibrocar tilage E. Pubis (Cartilaginous) Fibrocartilage F. Scapula/Humerus (Synovial) G. Humerus/Ulna Radius (Synovial) Hyaline cartilage H. Intercarpal (Cartilaginous) piece of paper joint/Nonaxial A C F G D E H B Figure 6. 1 Figure 6. 3 Figure 6. 2 Figure 7. 2 Figure 7. 1